Before we come to discuss the events around Orleans, let us analyze the following aspect of the military theme:
The secret of the military victories of Joan Darc. Among all mysteries of The Maid of Orleans, her amazing military successes are of key importance. They are amazing first of all because they followed a series of defeats of the French since, at least, the Agincourt battle. Secondly - because they were decisive for the destiny of the Hundred Years' war, which influenced much the further development of Europe and of the whole mankind.
How could an illiterate peasant girl score such amazing victories?
The following versions exist:
1) The Catholic version: the victories of Joan resulted from advices she received from The Voices, Saints of Heavens;
2) The traditional historical version: these victories stemmed from the courage and talent of Joan herself /1, 2/;
3) Quasi-historical: there was not much merit of Joan in these victories, she simply had excellent captains.
The latest version is supported by revisionists (see Chapter 2).
Let us analyze each of these versions.
Let us assume that, according to the Catholic version, upper (heavenly) forces guided Joan how to lead the army and how to command it in the war. In such case, it is very strange that they did not advise her to start an offensive on Paris immediately following the victory at Patais.
In the opinion of the historians /1, 2/, immediately after the battle of Patais, Paris was not sufficiently prepared for defense and could be conquered much more easily than Les Tourelles (during Orleans campaign) or Jargeau (Loire campaign). The strategic and psychological effect of such victory would be enormous. Burgundy would be practically neutralised in the war, and it would be much easier to launch an offensive on Reims from Paris rather than from Patais or from Orleans. Moreover, Joan would have alternative targets to Reims: Rouen, aiming to finish the English occupation of Northern France; or an offensive to the North, towards the Flanders, removing the northern allies of the English from the strategic scene, and at the same time separating Burgundy from the English. These opportunities should be obvious not only to upper forces but also to any strategically minding captain.
Yet, for unknown reasons, French captains did not support the idea of an offensive on Paris right after Patais. Practically, only Rouen was considered as an alternative to Reims /2/. Joan herself supported the idea of an offensive on Reims for an obvious reason: as a peasant, she believed in importance of crowning "the lawful king", while strategic details were not clear to her, first of all because she, an illiterate girl, was ignorant of geography. But other outstanding captains also supported so problematic offensive to Reims!
Let us note that the perspective of an immediate offensive on Rouen looks doubtful, because in such case the French would have left the Burgundian forces at their rear, and then the smallest defeat in Normandy might destroy all successes of Joan. The offensive on Reims really led the French to the final victory in the war, but its price was too high. For Joan herself that was a peril. Would upper forces aim at that, if they really wished for an early cessation of violence?
Well. If not upper forces, then maybe military advisers of Joan made all military decisions? In such case, we may conclude that they understood in the military strategy not better than an illiterate peasant girl.
Thus, if Joan took any wrong decision, nobody was able to correct her mistake.
Everyone knows that Napoleon had excellent marshals. Davout played a decisive role in the victory of the French in Prussia. Nevertheless, nobody says that Napoleon won only due to his marshals.
Now let us analyze very briefly how Joan commanded her battles without recommendations from anyone. And first of all let us provide a brief analysis of the battle which certainly became her decisive defeat: the sally at Compiegne, where she was defeated and taken prisoner (the detailed analysis of the operation will be done in Chapter 6).
From the point of view of the military theory, such defeat was impossible. That was an elementary sally aiming to destroy one or two Burgundian forts which were at that time just in their initial phases of construction. In sight of any minor trouble, the French were supposed to return to the town. Joan used the same tactic that allowed the raise of the siege of Orleans. To make it easier to retreat in case of a defeat, the French prepared boats on the river. First attack of the French was successful, but then the French saw the main forces of Burgundians coming. Joan immediately ordered to return to the fortress of Compiegne. Most of the French left the battlefield on boats, while the enemy, obviously, could not follow them. The retreat was covered by the Guards of Joan, which then returned to the town. Till that moment, the operation looked as definitely successful: the Burgundians suffered a serious loss of men, while the French lost practically none. If Joan succeeded to accomplish 3-4 additional operations of similar kind, the miracle of Orleans would have been repeated, even if on a smaller scale.
The trouble happened when Joan and her men came to the gate of the fortress of Compiegne. The gate was closed. Historians do not find any explanation for this fact other than betrayal of the commandant of Compiegne - Guillaume of Flavy. Even if he was afraid that the Burgundians could penetrate to the fortress, there was no problem to let the French into the fortress even together with the enemy. Compiegne was protected by a double wall: an exterior (the fortress) and an interior (the town itself). Fortresses had double walls mainly for such cases, in order to allow a safe retreat of sallying detachments followed by enemy. Had Joan's guard been allowed to enter into the fortress together with the Burgundians, the latter would have been destroyed or captured, because they had no equipment for storming the interior wall, and they would have been trapped in an inferior position, being attacked from the walls and by Joan's guard at the same time. Thus, the decision of Guillaume of Flavy has no explanation other than betraying Joan and her men to the enemy.
A typical military defeat looks as follows: the operation failed, soldiers are lost, wounded or captured, the commander offers his apologies and is consoled by his suite; he finds good justifications to explain the defeat and then faces his superior, expecting first a thrashing and then a new army to lead and ruin. The defeat of Joan at Compiegne looked totally different. The operation was successful at least to a certain extent and the main part of the detachment was unharmed, while the guards of the commander were lost or captured, and their leader, Joan, faced a future which did not contain a thrashing but a year of painful imprisonment, a hard trial, and as a result - the execution of most terrible kind ever invented by men.
Thus, Joan was not the one responsible for her main defeat. Formally, the defeat belonged to Guillaume of Flavy, the chief of the French in Compiegne. The same is applicable to the defeat of the French in the siege of Paris: the attack was stopped following the command of king Charles VII, while the exterior wall was already taken by men of Joan. Hence, that defeat belonged to the king.
The events at Compiegne showed that Joan was very careful in the preparation of military operations, in all their fine details. She also strived to minimize loss of men. What more is needed for a successful leading in a war?
Let us note the careful attention of Joan to her soldiers. We mean not only the effort to minimize human casualties. Where, when, in which army worldwide did the commander save the soldiers by attracting a strong enemy to himself? The fight of Joan at Compiegne is the case.
A number of years ago, an Israeli politician suggested to make army officers responsible for death and wounds of soldiers if these were found not justified. An Israeli general claimed then that in such case all officers would leave the army. He did not need to worry. Nobody held him responsible for his soldiers. The illiterate peasant girl of the Middle Age acted absolutely differently than the above mentioned general of one of most modern armies. Well... do such generals exist only in the Israeli army, even if such officers are only a minority?
The courage of Joan is illustrated by facts. Seriously wounded during the attack of Les Tourelles, she raised the army and led it into the decisive attack. That was the attack thanks to which the main fortress of the English near Orleans was conquered.
We mentioned above some of Joan's failures, but her victories were much more numerous and important. These victories decided the outcome of the Hundred Years' war, which influenced seriously the whole history of the mankind.
When an army is defeated, the commander bears the responsibility. When the army wins, the credit should go to the commander. This criterion is applicable to all military leaders. There is no reason to make an exception for Joan Darc. Her victories saved France and turned the Human history, and that was a result of her personal talent and courage. No upper forces and no secret advisers were related to these victories.
Saving of Orleans. Now let us return to events of spring 1429. The French army marches to Orleans, led by captains that consider Joan as a living banner. Meanwhile, the city is close to capitulation. The reason is not related to battles or other military factors: the walls are safe, soldiers and volunteers hold the control in the city. However, the city is running out of supplies of food. Residents of Orleans are facing death by hunger, and the poor are facing it before others.
All roads to the city are controlled by English bastions, on both the right (Northern) and the left (Southern) bank of Loire. Les Tourelles is the key fortress, conquering of which has cost the English a high price - they lost the Earl of Salisbury there. The Northern bank of Loire is within a shot of southern forts. This fact rules out fishing in the river. In addition to Les Tourelles, very important for the siege is the North-Eastern fort of St. Loup, controlling the road to the Eastern (Burgundian) gate of Orleans. Any attack from the city against one of the forts exposes the French to attacks by the English from the other forts. Some food is received by the citizens through the woods, but that route is too difficult, dangerous and not sure at all.
Fig. 4.1. The Siege of Orleans
As soon as the poor residents of the city will start perishing of hunger, capitulation will become inevitable. Applying similar tactics during a siege only a few years ago, the English had conquered the brave city of Rouen. Fall of Rouen was followed by massacres of the residents by the English. Only the fear of sharing the fate of Rouen holds the chiefs of Orleans from surrendering the city to the English. On the other hand, they are ready to capitulate to the Burgundians, which they fear less. Duke Philip Burgundian agrees to take the city under his protection, on a condition that the English will not object. However, the English do object. They did not fight in order to give the city to a French, even to a collaborationist. Following the logic of the English, the city must die of hunger or it must capitulate to Henry VI the English, accepting, as a punishment, some days of murders and maraudery.
However, the siege of Orleans is close to an end, for the following reason:
On Thursday April 28, 1429 the French army left Blois and marched to Orleans. In the avant-garde of the column, there was a detachment of clergy singing "God give us a victory". There were two roads from Blois to Orleans: one by the left bank of Loire, the other by the right side of the river.
Joan certainly ignored the local geography and completely trusted the other captains. She was sure that the army would follow the right bank, near towns and fortresses held by the English, to the Burgundian gate of Orleans. However, the captains decided to follow the left bank. On the second day of the march the army arrived near Orleans, but being on the left bank, there as separated from the city by the river. Joan understood that the captains had failed her.
Very soon, the captains understood the stupidity of their decision. The army needed to cross the river with 8000 armed soldiers, while there were only a few boats available. Nothing was ready also for the attack on Les Tourelles, which controlled the bridge to the city. On the other hand, the army was in the sight of the English, and crossing of the river could suffer no delay. As we see, the captains did not sufficiently prepare their army to the operation: they moved the forces without taking care for means of crossing the river. That was the first but not the last case when the illiterate peasant girl demonstrated better thinking than experienced commanders did. Let us ask: after all, who in this situation looked like a light-minded amateur which understood nothing in military affairs?
After a consultation, the captains decided to cross the river with a number of carriages and a small detachment of soldiers. The main army should return to Blois, then move again to Orleans, this time by the right bank of the river. Joan worried that without her, the army might lose the fighting spirit, and that it might even disperse. She probably was not sure about the victory. The captains convinced her that this time they would do everything right and would make sure to arrive with the army at Orleans. They convinced Joan that she was needed in the city. Joan and some other captains - Dunois and La Hire - took the food and the boats and rushed to the right bank. They came to a village located few kilometers to the East of the Burgundian gate. There, the English had one fort only - St. Loup. In order to distract the attention of the enemy from the string of carts, the volunteers which were located in the city fired at St. Loup. /3/.
The English of the Southern forts did not hinder the crossing of the river, they probably were worried of the large French army that was so near them. They certainly could not know that the carelessness of the experienced French captains rendered the army absolutely useless for a number of days.
On Friday evening, April 29, 1429 Joan came to the Burgundian gate of Orleans. All residents of the city came to meet her. People were happy to see their liberator /1/. That was the moment when the nickname "The Maid of Orleans" was heard first time.
This operation resulted first of all in supplying food into the blocked city. The threat of death by hunger was removed from Orleans, thanks to a young girl that came from Domremy. The citizens could now hope for a better outcome.
As we remember, in the end of March, 1429 Joan sent her first message to the English. As soon as Joan came to Orleans, she sent two messengers, carrying a second message. One of her messengers was arrested by the English. They promised to burn Joan as soon as they would capture her.
Joan decided to talk to the English. She approached the barricade that separated the French part of the bridge from Les Tourelles and asked the English to release her men and to go away. The English only mocked her. They certainly considered the peaceful intentions of Joan as an exhibition of weakness. In few days the girl proved them the contrary.
Thefirstvictory. On May 4, 1429 Joan, La Hire and some other captains left Orleans in order to meet the army marching from Blois. To avoid an English attack, they counted 500 soldiers. However, the English did not attack. It is possible that the march of the French column without a shoot had an effect similar to that is sometimes obtained nowadays by a military technique called `psychic attack'.
Almost as soon as the army came to Orleans, Dunois led a group of volunteers into an attack on fort St Loup (near the Burgundian gate). However, the English were able to push them back and launched a counter-attack. As soon as Joan learned about that setback, she came to join the volunteers. At that moment the battle looked hopeless for the French, and they ran in front of the enemy. Joan ran forward to intercept them.
"Stop! - she yelled to the running soldiers. - Do not show your backs to the enemy!" /1, 2/.
She stopped a number of men and led them back into the battle. Other volunteers joined them. New forces came from the city, and the attack on St. Loup resumed. The fort was well protected, and its garrison counted 300 soldiers. English archers shot at the attacking French. The latter might have retreated again, if not Joan with her banner in front of the army. She appealed to the soldiers, and they followed her /1/.
The victory was near, but suddenly an English detachment appeared from Western forts. The English threatened to attack the French from the back. However, Joan immediately saw the danger and sent 600 volunteers with pikes to meet the new enemy. For many long minutes, the two detachments stood facing each other. Volunteers coming from the city joined both French detachments - the one attacking the fort and the one holding back the second English group. Meanwhile, Dunois launched a false attack on fort "Paris". Then the English left the battlefield. Fort "St Loup" fell. Seeing that further resistance is futile, the English left the fort through the back side of the hill, leaving 160 soldiers dead and 40 more as captives /1, 2/.
The victory at St Loup was the first military success not only for Joan but for the whole French army at Orleans. In the military aspect, the blockade of Burgundian gate was removed. The French not only obtained the opportunity to supply food and equipment into Orleans from the East but could now also prepare to a new attack - against the Southern forts, on the other side of the river.
Thus, the first battle of Joan ended as a victory, while it was a certain defeat until the girl joined the volunteers. It is interesting to note that the situation with the English threatening the French from the rear was similar to the final episode of the battle of Poitiers, where the French were also much stronger than the enemy, but lost anyway.
Let us note that the contribution of the other French captains to this victory was negligible. Nevertheless, quasi-historians claim that Joan did not win without help of the other captains.
Analyzing the battle for St Loup, one may think that Joan did not do anything extraordinary. She only reacted quickly to sudden changes of the situation, correctly interpreted maneuvers of the enemy, took care of her forces and used her personal example in order to inspire her people - and nothing more.
Nothing more...
The raise of the siege. The destruction of fort St Louis opened up the total blockade from Orleans, but did not end the siege. Theoretically, the French needed to take English forts one by one. Practically, that was not necessary. To make the siege obsolete, it was enough to destroy either all Northern or all Southern forts. The second seemed more simple: just two big forts - St Augustin and Les Tourelles. However, Les Tourelles alone was worth many other forts.
The French needed to act quickly, otherwise the army of John Fastolf would come to help the English in the forts around Orleans.
Suspecting the intention of the French to attack the Southern forts, on May 5, 1429 the English sent many soldiers from Northern to Southern forts.
On the evening of May 5, the French captains held a military council. They invited all commanders except Joan. The events of the previous days, including the fight for St Loup, did not change their opinion that the "peasant girl" was unable to lead the army (so similar to modern quasi-historians!). Only after the plan had been ready and agreed, Joan was informed that an attack was planned next day against a big Northern fort of the English. The captains did not tell her that this attack aimed only to draw away the English from the real target of the French. They believed that during the attack of the English fort by the volunteers, the main part of the French army - knights and soldiers - would attack Les Tourelles. The plan foresaw a role of a decoy for the volunteers.
Let us imagine the reaction of Joan to the things she had heard. After the negligence that the captains demonstrated on the left bank of the river only a few days ago, she had no intention to trust them too much. Now suddenly they informed her about their intention to conquer one of the Northern forts. For which purpose? To destroy the blockade that did not exist anymore, since the destruction of St Loup? Or just to excite the English for which this fort was only one of nine? To play war games, risking lives of thousands of volunteers?
All that might have two explanations. First: the successes of last days caused the captains - all together - to lose their minds, and they needed immediate mental help. Second: the captains lied again, hiding their main objective from Joan. Not being a healer, the girl tried the second option:
- Tell me the truth, what is your plan? I can keep very important secrets. /1/.
After a short silence Dunois replied:
- It is okay, Joan. We have no intention to lie to you. /Of course, because the lie did not succeed! - Author./ All we have told you is true. We really intend to do it. However, - he added, - if the English of the left bank come to help their men here, we will be able to cross the river and attack Les Tourelles /1/.
Is everything clear? If the English of the left bank come to help their men here... But - if not? Then the captains leave the army, go home and let the really good commander do the job?
Anyway, Joan understood the idea about Les Tourelles. Since nobody told her the truth, also she decided not to coordinate her actions with the other captains.
On the morning of May 6, volunteers led by Joan came to Burgundian gate. They did not trust the other captains. Not only because the volunteers did not wish to be cannon-fodder for the victories of Dunois and other captains, but first of all because the citizens did not believe in the ability of the knights to win. The volunteers found the gate closed and guarded by Raoul of Gaucourt. When the latter understood that he could not stop the men of Joan, he opened the gate and led the volunteers to the zone on the bank which was most convenient for crossing the river.
Let us note that the captains, as soon as they understood that Joan bet them in their own game, organized a false attack of English forts on the right bank. That was done by Dunois, while La Hire came to help the volunteers.
The English that were in the small fort of St Jean Le Blanc saw the enemy, left the fort and moved to St Augustin, covering the way to Les Tourelles. Meanwhile the French made a temporary bridge and started landing on the southern bank. Joan wished to keep the intensity of the attack and led her men to St Augustin. Her detachment counted too few people, and the English made them retreat almost to the bank of the river. Joan with her guardians covered the retreat. When it seemed impossible to avoid their destruction, men of Joan, armed with lances, attacked the English. The latter hesitated for a few seconds. Their hesitation decided the outcome. A few seconds later, the detachments of Gilles de Rais and La Hire arrived. The English retreated.
Following the enemy, the French arrived at the rampart. Joan put her banner onto the rampart, and the volunteers rushed there. The English could do nothing. Fort St Augustin was taken very soon by the French.
The way to Les Tourelles became open. However, the attack was not ready yet, and the French were having too short time till the evening. After destroying St Augustin and leaving a detachment in St Jean Le Blanc, the French returned to Orleans.
A legend tells that on the evening of May 6 Joan hinted that she would be wounded during the storm of Les Tourelles /3/. Most historians disagree with the legend.
According to /3/, that evening one of the captains visited Joan. He tried to convince her to postpone the attack on Les Tourelles, referring to insufficient number of French soldiers. The only thing he succeeded to do, was to make Joan angry /3/.
That night the English evacuated garrisons from the small forts on the left bank and placed them in their Northern forts. Maybe they misunderstood the French tactic and expected the attack on the right bank. They might have as well overestimated the strength of Les Tourelles. As we noted above, the Northern and the Southern forts were equally important for the siege.
Morning May 7, 1429, the French forces began the attack on Les Tourelles. The first impact was against the high barricade (barbican) that protected the fortress from Orleans. This barricade was constructed by the English after they took the fortress, because initially it was (certainly) not protected from the Northern side. The barbican was a strong quadrangle position protected from North by a wall and by a ditch of water. The barbican had a large number of cannons and was manned by brave English soldiers. A bridge connected the barbican with the fortress. Though the barbican was very strong, it was still the weakest part of the fortress.
The battle began with bombardment of the barbican by French cannons. Then the attack followed. At about 1 PM, the French filled the ditch with bundles of sticks. Both sides showed courage. Though the French were shot at by archers and cannons, they penetrated through the earthen ramparts and through the filled ditches. Some times they made it to the basis of the barbican, but were unable to climb the wall.
In the afternoon, the French attack lost its strength. The soldiers were tired, they lost many of their comrades. Then Joan attached a ladder to the wall and yelled: "Everyone who loves me, follow me!". Joan stepped on the ladder and started climbing. Suddenly an arbalest arrow (arbalest bolt) stuck into her right clavicle. The English ran to a sally, hoping to capture the girl, but the French repelled their attack.
The French removed Joan from the barbican and laid her on the grass. The girl lost much blood but was still conscious. She asked to take off her armor, then removed the iron arrow-head with her own hands. Her men covered her wound with a rag soaked in olive oil, and the bleeding stopped.
The storm renewed, still without results. Dunois decided to order the forces to retreat. However, Joan felt a little bit better and spoke to the soldiers:
- Go bravely! The English are exhausted! Now we will take the barbican and the towers! /1/
She rushed to the barbican, followed by her soldiers. Her wound did not allow her to hold the banner, and it was held by two soldiers, one of them Jean of Aulon. The English were already sure of their victory, and were absolutely not prepared to this new attack. They were taken by surprise, especially because Joan behaved as if she was not wounded at all.
That moment the artillery from Orleans started shelling of the fortress. A detachment of volunteers led by La Hire attacked from the bridge. Men of Joan attacked the enemy inside the barbican. The English retreated. They were on a narrow bridge connecting the fortress to the bank. The French sent a brander (a boat loaded with tar, bundles of sticks and other flammable materials) and sent it down the river stream, against this bridge. The brander inflamed the bridge. Very soon also the fortress was enflamed. The English ran onto the bridge. Many of them fell into the river, others died in fire. The English which were on the right bank observed the events, horrified. When the last group of the English, led by Sir William Glasdale, stepped on the bridge, the bridge broke down, and the whole group died in the river. Let us note that Sir William Glasdale was among the English that mocked Joan a few days earlier, when she proposed peace.
The French re-constructed the bridge using logs they prepared ahead of time. At 18.00 the rest of the garrison of Les Tourelles capitulated. Three hours later Joan returned to Orleans through the Southern gate. The joy of the people who met her in the city had no limits.
Though the volunteers played a decisive role in the victory, the detachments of knights also performed more or less well in the fighting. Without them Joan's victory would have been much harder to achieve.
Let us note the following mystical coincidence. Both commanders that conquered Les Tourelles during the Hundred Years' war - Earl of Salisbury in October, 1428 and Joan Darc in May, 1429 - paid with their blood for the victories. The earl was killed, the girl was seriously wounded.
There are two contradicting versions of the further events (May 8).
The first version: as soon as they understood that the siege had ended, the English left the forts in front of the walls of Orleans, simply escaped and left behind in the bastions the largest part of their artillery, and even abandoned their wounded and sick comrades /1/.
According to another version, on May 8 the English left the Northern forts and, taking good positions, prepared for a battle. Some of French captains wished to attack, but Joan persuaded them not to take risks. In the afternoon, when the English understood that the French attack would not take place, they retreated to Meung-sur-Loire, leaving the artillery and the wounded and sick soldiers /2, 3/.
The second version is very doubtful.
First: in the previous days the English lost many people, hence, in case of a battle in the field the French would be much stronger.
Second: the events of May 7 showed that the English were psychologically broken, they did not even try to help the garrison of Les Tourelles. Nevertheless, in principle, one may suggest that the image of their comrades perishing in fire and water so shocked the English that they were ready to launch a suicide battle.
Third: if the English found themselves strong enough to continue the fighting, why did they not return to the forts after the enemy refused to attack? Why did the English leave the content of the forts and - especially - their wounded and sick comrades?
Fourth: for John Talbot, the commander of the English, it would be much more logical to march to North, to meet there the forces of John Fastolf, rather than try to defeat Joan, after he had failed to do it with more forces.
The raise of the siege from Orleans was the beginning of a strategic breakthrough in the Hundred Years' war. For the first time, the French civilian volunteers and knights with their soldiers came to a mutual understanding. After months of siege, instead of an expected tragedy, Orleans got a wonderful triumph. And this took nine days only. That's how Joan received the nickname "The Maid of Orleans".
The strategic breakthrough in the war took only a few more weeks to come.
REFERENCES
1. V.I.Raitses. The trial of Joan of Arc. (Russian: В.И.Райцес. Процесс Жанны д'Арк. М.-Л., 1964.)
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