Since 15th century, the personality of The Maid of Orleans excites public opinion. She attracts not only historians and philosophers, but also writers, composers, producers and ordinary people.
A simple peasant girl whose merits earned her and her family the title of Earl of Lilies (Fleur-Du-Lis). A 17 year old warrior and leader that created a very strong army, basing it on gangs of mere pillagers, liberated half of her country, destroyed three English armies and in a month and a half changed the strategic situation in one of the longest wars in the history, using tactics that later in 20th century have been named "Blitzkrieg".
A peasant girl that crowned king Charles VII, to be betrayed by him to pain and death. An illiterate child that for a number of weeks stood against some tens of doctors of theology and, while trying to save her life, found answers to questions, some of which were considered at that time as problems without solutions.
"The champion" in the number of names and nicknames she has had in various languages, and in the number of books, melodies and movies she has inspired. An absolutely legendary person whose life is known almost precisely.
These are the paradoxes we find as soon as we take a very brief look into the biography of Joan.
A widely spread opinion suggests that Joan considered her main goal in replacing the authority of English king Henry VI in France with that of French king Charles VII. That is wrong. As we show below, the English behaved very cruelly in France. Therefore the main, if not the sole, goal of Joan consisted of saving the French from suffering and destruction. As Joan said, she felt pity for her sweet France tormented by aggressors. Crowning of Charles VII was just a necessity, as Joan believed, a means to gain this goal.
It is only normal that Joan became the symbol of patriotism and heroism worldwide. During World War II, many partisan detachments in France and in other European countries occupied by Nazi took the name of Joan of Arc.
The memory of Joan does not belong only to France. Many foreign representatives were glad to meet Joan when she was staying with Charles VII. After her tragic death, Joan conquered hearts of people of various nations, including the English.
French, English, German, Italian, American and Russian authors wrote about her. Many producers made movies about Joan. Her theme permanently appears in Hollywood.
On the other hand, Joan is a subject of hate for the people, who lie and calumniate about those they cannot understand. In France and in other countries there are numerous absurd myths and calumnies about this heroic girl that saved her country and received the payment back with her tragic death.. These myths are too much like that same calumny the "judges" of Joan threw upon her when they explored every pretext to condemn her to death on stake.
Some aspects of Joan's biography do not seem impossible today, in 21st century. Victories of Garibaldi and Bolivar were not less spectacular than those of Joan. Bertrand du Guesclin, one of most talented captains of the Hundred Years' war, was illiterate like Joan. Flemish Joan, the wife of Jean of Montfort, successfully commanded the defense of their fortress. After all, why is The Maid of Orleans so special for us? Maybe she is, because she did the impossible thing, decisively contributed to the cessation of the cruel war and saved French people from foreign aggressors. And - because of the ingratitude France paid to Joan. This paradox - between Joan's exploit and the reward for it - is probably the main mystery of The Maid of Orleans.
The goal of this book consists in the analysis of most important mysteries of The Maid of Orleans and their possible explanations in the light of the modern science.
The following sources were used in the preparation of this book:
V.I.Raitses. The trial of Joan of Arc. (Russian: В.И.Райцес. Процесс Жанны д'Арк. М.-Л., 1964.)
Virginia Frohlick. Saint Joan of Arc Center. http://www.stjoan-center.com/
This site contains numerous references on the subject and suggests answers to frequently asked questions regarding Joan.
Hundred Years' War http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years_War
We take into consideration also other publications on the subject, including articles of revisionists of the biography of Joan. Each chapter contains the list of used references.
We thank MrsMrs. Virginia Frohlick (Saint Joan of Arc Center) for useful consultations.
We thank Mr. Nikolai Shulgin (Moscow), Ph.D., for useful discussion.
Chapter 1. Important events and mysteries of Hundred Years' War before The Maid of Orleans
Reasons that caused the Hundred Years' War. In 1066 duke William the Conqueror defeated the Saxon army of king Harold II in the battle of Hastings and became king of England. Nothing indicated at that time the enormous price France would pay for this invasion.
Separated from the continent, England developed in a somewhat specific manner. The invasion of William caused a painful tension between the English-Saxon majority of the population and the Franco-Norman leaders, in addition to the traditional contradictions between "noble" and "simple", rich and poor. The factor of additional (inter-ethnic) tensions stimulated the fast development of England, in comparison with other European countries, including France. As a result, in 1215 king John was forced to sign The Great Charter. While the Charter protected mostly the interests of English barons, it stimulated the development of democratic mentality and became the juridical base for the future European democracy.
The geographic separation of England from the continent allowed the English to reduce their expenses for defense and let them spend less money on military needs. Of course, such weak neighbors as Scotland, Wales and Ireland were unable to menace England seriously. This factor was very favorable for the economic development of England. The powerful economy allowed England to organize a very strong army that performed excellently in the Hundred Years' War.
As the ethnical tensions in England eased, the country became the most developed and powerful part of Europe. The fast development of England resulted in aggressions of England against its neighbors. While Scotland, Wales and Ireland were too weak, the French sometimes succeeded in battles with the English. As a result, in the beginning of 14th century, the French conquered most of English continental lands (see Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1. English presence in France, 1337. French territory - yellow, English - grey /3/.
First mystery of Hundred Years' War. The first mystery of the war appeared some ten years before the first shot.
While the main reason that caused the war was the fast political and economical development of England, the formal reason was related to problems of French inheritance /1, 2/.
In 1314, Philip IV, king of France, died. He had three sons. During next 14 years they (Louis X, Philip V and Charles IV) all died, leaving no heirs. The Capetian dynasty ceased to exist. The French crown became vacant.
A really strange series of events! The first explanation: conspiracy. Maybe some pretender organized the death of all three brothers? No, such assumption is hardly acceptable. To make sense for such conspiracy, the succession rights of the pretender should be very convincing, otherwise the pretender only helped his rivals. As we show below, the rights of both pretenders to French crown were too doubtful, therefore, they did not have enough reason to work hard. The only reasonable explanation: maybe Charles IV killed both of his brothers, then deceased for some reason not related to policy or crown. However, his wife might have a son. In the last case, the pretext for the war would be delayed.
Now, let us analyze the situation in France after the death of Charles IV. There were two pretenders to the French crown: English king Edward III (his mother Isabel was a French princess, daughter of Philip IV) and earl Philip Valois (nephew of Philip).
According to the Salic Law (Lex Salica, law from the period of Frankish empire), a woman could not inherit French crown. In England, the Salic Law was not valid.
Let us note that problems of inheritance have caused a series of other terrible wars: the Wars of the Roses in England.
In April 1328, the Royal Council of France elected Philip Valois, and he was crowned as Philip VI. Edward III accepted this decision and recognized Philip VI as French suzerain /1, 2/.
In 1337, the conflict between these two kings renewed. Robert Artois, felon in the eyes of Philip VI, escaped to Aquitaine, one of English provinces in France. France confiscated Aquitaine, for reasons of rebellion and disobedience. Then the English attacked Zealand (Battle of Cadsand or Cadzand). In 1338, England declared war to France, Edward III claimed the French crown and added the French heraldic symbols to his coat of arms /1, 2/.
The claims of the French crown by English kings remained even after the dynastic changes in England, when Lancaster replaced Plantagenet.
Thus, it is not correct to believe that only England was responsible for the Hundred Years' war. The French king did all possible to cause the violence.
The dynastic conflict between English and French kings started one of most terrible wars in Human history. We call it the "Hundred Years' war", while it really consisted of a number of periods of military violence interrupted by unstable armistices.
Most important events of Hundred Years' war from 1337 to 1420. After the first victory in Battle of Cadsand, English were defeated a number of times, especially on the sea /2/. Enemies attacked each other without definite success until the battle of Crecy (1346). During this battle, the French side organized very poorly the interaction between their cavalry and infantry (the Genoese). The Genoese were easily defeated by English archers that also used cannons (first time in European battlefield). When Genoise tried to escape the enemy, they collided with the cavalry of French knights, while the latter was on the way to attack the English.. The French cavalry was very soon totally defeated by the English /2, 3/.
Because of the pandemics of the Black Death (Black Plague, the bubonic plague) both sides interrupted the battles. The population of Europe died by tens of millions. Only in Avignon, the number of dead people was about 62 thousands in two months (50% of residents), while the number of the French lost in the battle of Crecy was 3 thousands /2/.
Later, the English invasion restarted. In 1356, a brave deceptive incursion into the depth of enemy positions allowed the English to win the battle of Poitiers /2/. The main result of the battle consisted in the capture of king Jean II by the English. While the victory at Crecy gave to the English the North-West part of France, Poitiers gave them the South-West of the country.
In the following years, the English invasion was stopped due to the excellent defense of French fortresses. However, the rebellion of Jacquerie and revolts in Paris allowed the English to obtain very favorable conditions of peace treaty of Bretigny (1360). Then the map of France looked as shown on Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2. English presence in France, 1360. French territory - yellow, English - grey /3/.
According to the Treaty of BrИtigny, England received above 1/3 of the French territories, mostly in South France, but agreed to renounce the French crown.
The peace Treaty of BrИtigny remained in force until 1369, and was sporadically violated by collisions of the English and the French in France and in Castile. Due to the French support, Henry of Trastamara obtained the Castilian throne, was crowned as Henry II and became an ally of France against England.
In June 1369 France, supported by Castile, attacked the English on the sea. In 20 years, the French won back most of territories they lost in 1360. The situation of the English was complicated by interior problems, including the dynastic fight and Wat Tyler's revolt in 1381 /2, 3/.
In 1375, the English and the French signed a new peace agreement, which remained in force only until 1377. The further fighting was not successful for both sides. In 1389 a new peace agreement was signed /2/. The map of France of 1380 is on Fig. 1.3.
Fig. 1.3. English presence in France, 1380. French territory - yellow, English - grey /3/.
Another mysterious key event happened in France, 1392: French king Charles VI exhibited madness. Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, brothers of Charles VI, started the fight for the right of regency /2/. In 1393, Louis of Orleans succeeded and became the regent. In 1396 France and England signed a new peace treaty, and English king Richard II married the French princess Isabel. However, Richard II lost the English throne in 1399. The throne was taken over by Henry IV (Bolingbroke) /2, 3/.
In 1402 the Scottish allies of France were defeated in the Battle of Humbleton Hill /2, 3/. However, French naval forces defeated the English. Most of English captives were killed by the French. In revenge, the English devastated French lands.
Thus, in beginning of 15th century the war between England and France progressed with alternating success of the rivals, success swinging from one side to the other like a pendulum. None of the enemies succeeded definitely, and both adversaries aimed mainly to the destruction of peaceful people. Both England and France were cruel with peaceful population and with captives.
However, in 1411 the pendulum of war tended to the side of England. The permanent conflict of Orleans and Burgundy resulted in a civil war in France. The English sided with Burgundy.
Very soon Louis of Orleans was assassinated, and Armagnac became the leader of the French resistance to England and to Burgundy. Later, the name "Armagnac" was attributed to all partisans of freedom of France, while that was not correct. The real Armagnac was just one of numerous feudal seniors. In 1413, when residents of Paris organized a revolt, this was cruelly suppressed by partisans of Armagnac.
In 1413 Henry V Lancaster took the English throne. In 1415 his army landed in Normandy and defeated the French in the battle of Agincourt. This victory was achieved due to a perfect interaction of English archers with cavalry and due to the use of palings. During this battle, the English killed some thousands of French captives.
Till 1419, the English occupied North-West France and, thanks to their alliance with Burgundy, took Paris.
The Treaty of Troyes and the change of the character of the war. In May-June 1420 Henry V was recognized successor of the French crown, by the signature of the Treaty of Troyes, and married princess Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. The Treaty of Troyes was prepared by French queen Isabel and by Philip, the duke of Burgundy. A very important contribution in the preparation of this treaty was by pro-English Paris University and especially by the bishop Pierre Cauchon. Theologists of Paris University provided a theoretical foundation for the bi-national state as a "City of God" without ethnic or state frontiers /1/.
According to this treaty, the son of Charles VI, dauphin Charles, was deprived the rights for succession. After the expected death of king Charles VI, the French crown should belong to Henry V (The English), then to his son, to be born by princess Catherine. A special article of the treaty allowed Henry V to punish any French refusing to accept his authority. It is easy to understand that this article was freely applied by the English for repressions against every French suspected in non-sufficient loyalty to England.
As soon as Henry V married princess Catherine, he came to Paris.
The English executed by thousands people which they suspected in resistance. English occupation authorities took hostages: every time when they were unable to find the performers of one or other anti-English action, they arbitrarily arrested the French and then executed them. Only at the Market Place of Rouen (where The Maid of Orleans was executed later) numerous gallows were occupied with bodies of executed men. Chopped-off human heads were pinned on pickets at the city gate. One day in autumn of year 1431, the occupants executed there about 400 French. Only in Normandy, the English executed up to 10 thousand people a year /1/. Taking into consideration the population of France during that period, one may conclude that the goal of English consisted not only in the cessation of the resistance but also in a total extermination of the aborigine people.
In the zones of English occupation, the taxes were enormous. English barons and knights got French lands. Philip, duke of Burgundy, occupied step by step the Northern France, including Champaign /1/.
The signing of the Treaty of Troyes changed radically the character of the war. This became a just war of liberation, rightful for the French. Now their fight was not for the occupation of England but for saving French people from extermination.
Dauphin Charles claimed that he did not recognize the Treaty of Troyes and conflicted with his mother, queen Isabel. He created his "state" in Bourges, to South of Loire /1/.
From Troyes to Orleans. We already noted a number of mystic key events related to the Hundred Years' war, comprising the cessation of the Capetian dynasty and the madness of Charles VI. In August, 1422 another mystic event happened, this time favorable for the French: Henry V died from gas gangrene, at that time called "St Antony's fire". Two months later, also Charles VI deceased. Had he died before Henry V, the latter would have become king of France. Now, in accordance with the Treaty of Troyes, young Henry VI was the king of both kingdoms, but he could be crowned only in 1431 /1, 2/. Before 1431, many events made his crowning a nonsense.
The regency was divided between uncles of Henry VI, Bedford and Gloster: Bedford ruled in France, while the latter ruled in England. The title of the supreme regent belonged to John Bedford. He was in France with Henry Beaufort, the cardinal and bishop of Winchester. This one helped Bedford in his contacts with the French Church /1/.
The low number of occupants did not allow them to rule France without aborigine collaborationists. Among these, men of Church were very numerous. We mentioned already the role of bishop Pierre Cauchon and of Paris University in the preparation of the Treaty of Troyes. Paris University was a very powerful institution. In the time of civil war in France, Paris University sided with Burgundy /1/.
The entourage of Bedford in France included numerous men of Church that even the English called "the false French". They were in the Royal Council, worked as state secretaries, completed important diplomatic missions. Their service was well paid with high salaries, pensions and land offers /1/.
Some privileges were offered also to residents of territories loyal to the English. E.g., the privileges in trade with England, granted to residents of Aquitaine, went to such extent that the residents were against Charles VII. When his army occupied Aquitaine in years 1450, its residents even tried to revolt /2/.
In addition to military operations and cooperation with pro-English French collaborationists, the English reinforced their relations with France by marriages. After Henry V married princess Catherine, John Bedford married Anne, the young sister of duke Philip of Burgundy (1423) /1, 2/.
For the absolute majority of the French, the English authority meant suffers, terror and deportations. The cruelty of aggressors caused resistance rather than obedience. The resistance began as soon as the English entered Normandy. Initially, there were only sporadic acts of self-defense against the English and the collaborationist marauders. Later, the movement became organized and turned into a total resistance to the occupants. The political goal of the resistance was the removal of the English from the French land, as responsible for the suffers of aborigine people /1/.
Among the participants of the resistance, there were not only ruined peasants but also knights whose lands were confiscated and offered to the English, merchants deprived by hard contributions and taxes, artisans that lost revenues in towns, and even poor priests that observed and shared suffering of simple people /1/. However, the main force of the resistance were peasants that were the first to suffer from English authorities, from new English seniors, marauders and collaborationists /1/.
Some hundreds of partisan detachments operated in forests of Normandy. Each of them counted only a few people, but they were highly mobile. As all partisans in Human history, they organized ambushes, attacked separate English detachments and garrisons. Each newcomer fighter in such partisan detachment promised that he would do all possible in order to harm the English /1/. The history of Robin Hood repeated in a large scale, but this time the English and the Franco-Normans exchanged their roles.
English occupants organized punitive expeditions, combed forests and executed suspected people. English authorities paid fees for each partisan's head. The English paid also for the information about everyone who helped the "forest brothers". However, as it was written in chronics, each head cut was immediately replaced by three new ones /1/.
Partisans in Northern France not only harmed directly the English but also harmed their communications and made it harder for them to penetrate into central and Southern zones of France. The English needed more and more soldiers in the garrisons of the occupied towns. As a result, the English move into South France was inhibited and slowed down. In 1425, the military activity diminished, and the situation calmed /1/.
In autumn 1428, the political map of France looked very motley (see Fig. 1.4). North-West and South-West of France were occupied by the English. Burgundian allies of England controlled most part of Northern and North-East France. However, in the occupation zones, there were isles of territories supporting dauphin Charles. One of them was Vaucouleurs in Northern Champaign. Near Vaucouleurs there was the village of Domremy - the "little motherland" of future Maid of Orleans /1/.
Fig. 1.4. Map of France in autumn, 1428. French territory - yellow, English - grey, Burgundian - dark grey.
Siege of Orleans. To conquer completely France, the English forces from Northern France just needed to cross Loire, then move to South-West and join the English forces in Aquitaine. That was the strategic plan of Bedford that he started to accomplish in autumn 1428. The central point of his plan was conquering of the city of Orleans. This city was of strategic importance, because it controlled the roads from Northern France to South France. If Orleans was conquered by the English, these should not expect any serious resistance in South France. Thus, the battle for Orleans was decisive for the fate of France.
In June 1428 Sir Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury landed in Calais, leading an army of up to 6000 soldiers, accompanied by quite large units of artillery. In August 1428, the army had reached Loire and started the offensive on the region of Orleans. First of all, Salisbury seized some fortresses to the North of Orleans. In August - September 1428 he conquered Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire and other towns and fortresses in the Northern part of the valley of Loire /1, 2/.
On October 12, 1428 the English were ready to attack the southern suburbs of Orleans. The English forces counted only 4 to 5 thousand soldiers, because the English were forced to leave garrisons in many cities they had seized. The city was defended. Though the French garrison in the city counted only 500 soldiers, it was reinforced by a large number of volunteers. The French were able to form 34 detachments, one detachment per tower. The first target of the English was fort Les Tourelles. After three days of bombardments, the French left Les Tourelles (October 23, 1428) /1, 2/.
We noted above three mystic events that seriously influenced the war: the ending of the Capetian dynasty, the madness of French king Charles VI and the death of English king Henry V. In October 1428 another mystic event took place, when one day after Les Tourelles was taken by the English, Salisbury visited the fortress. Suddenly, one of cannons of Orleans fired. The stray cannonball killed him (probably when it broke a window near to which he stood). The event occurred on October 27, 1428.
The death of the Earl of Salisbury saved Orleans from an immediate attack by the English which probably would have finished the existence of an independent French state.
To avoid loss of soldiers, English captains decided to organize a siege on Orleans, instead of attacking it directly. They built a system of forts around the city, which made it very difficult to supply food into Orleans. As a result, the city was expected to capitulate in order to avoid hunger. A similar siege allowed the English to conquer Rouen (1419), where some thousands of residents died of hunger, and many others were killed by English soldiers when the city capitulated. The English had all reasons to believe that same tactics would be effective also against Orleans.
At a certain time, chances of the English to succeed started to look doubtful. On February 12, 1429, the French and the Scottish attacked the English forces which were led by Sir John Fastolf. However, the French hesitated with the attack, and that hesitation allowed the English to organize their defense, using wagons loaded with herrings. The French and the Scottish were definitely defeated /3/. Since that moment the fall of Orleans became only a matter of time.
Thus, the history of Hundred Years war counted enough mystic facts even before The Maid of Orleans came. However, we still have not mentioned the most wonderful mystery of that period:
"Merlin's prophecy". In the years after the Treaty of Troyes was signed, a very strange legend-prophecy appeared. This was attributed to wizard Merlin, a friend and protector of king Arthur and of the knights of his Round Table. A number of versions of this "prophecy" exist, but its essence is as follows: "France will be ruined by an evil queen but saved by a simple, innocent, pure maiden out of an oak-wood from Lorraine".
As soon as the Treaty of Troyes was imposed onto France by queen Isabel and duke Philip of Burgundy, French were persuaded that the first part of the "prophecy" had realized, hence, very soon, a simple, innocent, pure maiden out of an oak-wood from Lorraine would save France. Therefore, when Joan claimed that her mission was to remove the English from France and to crown dauphin Charles, many people believed that she really was the maiden from "Merlin's prophecy".
"Merlin's prophecy" played a very important role in the success of the mission of The Maid of Orleans, because not only did it attract sympathy of people but it also made most of knights to forget the simple origin of Joan, since she was noted by great Merlin. It has been very possible that Joan herself was influenced by this "prophecy".
Where did this "prophecy" come from? This is a difficult question. It is too easy to suggest that "the prophecy" was invented by partisans of dauphin Charles when Joan followed her way to Chinon, or even earlier. Such version is supported by revisionists of the biography of The Maid of Orleans (see further chapters). Although, such explanation has a fatal drawback discussed below.
The author of this book has dealt frequently with most wonderful predictions that were realized in a very strange manner. Their detailed analysis stands outside the scope of this book, but let us mention one of such predictions, much more wonderful than "Merlin's prophecy".
In 1898, a science fiction writer Morgan Robinson published a novel entitled "Futility", which told the story of sinking of a very large ship named "Titan". It was 70,000 tons displacement and 800 feet long. It set sail in early April, struck an iceberg by a glancing blow and began to sink. Unfortunately, "Titan" did not carry enough lifeboats to accommodate all her passengers in the event of such an emergency. As a result, most of her passengers died in the icy sea.
Fourteen years later, the same thing happened to a very real ship - the "Titanic".
The correspondence between the prediction and its realization is practically absolute: many of details for the imaginary "Titan" are identical to those of the real "Titanic", while others differ only a little. And, what is very important, the prediction of Morgan Robinson was not oral but published.
Thus, "Merlin's prophecy" seems very modest against the novel "Futility". Therefore, we may suggest that the author of "Merlin's prophecy" was just a man, and not as clear sighted as Morgan Robinson.
However, one may object that the prediction of Robinson contained some errors, even if not important, whereas "Merlin's prophecy"...
"Merlin's prophecy", on the contrary to the prediction of Robinson, was definitely wrong and was not supported by facts. Because the simple, innocent, pure maiden that saved France from foreign aggressors was not from Lorraine but from Champaign - there, at the frontier with Lorraine, has been the village of Domremy which Joan came from. Very near Lorraine, but not Lorraine. And not from an oak wood did Joan come. While Domremy was a small village, it was not an oak wood at all. Moreover: not an evil queen ruined France. Queen Isabel contributed only a little to the catastrophe of France. French people blamed her because she was of foreign origin (from Bavaria), but it would be much more correct to accuse French kings and princes that imposed the terrible war on their country.
After all: NOT an evil queen, NOT Lorraine, NOT oak wood. What YES? What is the part of "Merlin's prophecy" which has realized? Only Joan herself, nobody and nothing more. If not maiden Joan from a village in Champaign, nobody would have saved France.
For illiterate Joan, that ignored geography, mistaking Champaign for Lorraine was pardonable. Also for most of the French that was not important of all. However, the great and sage wizard Merlin could not mistake so seriously.
It is very strange that the Burgundians and the English have not used this important detail to discredit Joan in the eyes of the French. Those tried all kinds of calumny against her but forgot the principal thing: "Armagnacs, your Maid Joan cannot be the maiden predicted by Merlin, because she is NOT out of an oak-wood from Lorraine but she is just out of a village in Champaign".
The fact that Joan realized "Merlin's prophecy" in its deep sense meant her great desire to help her people and country, to stop the cruel war, using any possibility for that goal, even illusions. The merit of the author of "Merlin's prophecy", whoever he was, is too doubtful.
Now let us assume for one minute that "Merlin's prophecy" was invented by partisans of dauphin Charles aiming to make Joan credible in the eyes of simple French. The only conclusion: these inventors ignored the geography of France - like illiterate Joan...
However, should we reproach the compatriots of Joan for such a mistake? Even much later, when explorers of her biography very frequently touched "Merlin's prophecy", they did not pay attention to its mistaken character. Especially those intelligent educated gentlemen that have thoughtfully concluded: "Well, this prophecy certainly has meant that Joan was specially prepared to play the role of liberator of France".
After Joan defeated the English in the campaign of Orleans, "Merlin's prophecy" became irrelevant. It didn't matter anymore where the maid-liberator of France came from. It was much more important that the liberation of France began. Let us talk about that in next chapters.
REFERENCES
1.V.I.Raitses. The trial of Joan of Arc. (Russian: В.И.Райцес. Процесс Жанны д'Арк. М.-Л., 1964.)
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